microPublication Biology 2578-9430 Caltech Library 10.17912/micropub.biology.002337 new finding gene model drosophila Gene model for the ortholog of Wnt6 in Drosophila cardini Peruso Brenna Data curation Formal analysis Investigation Writing - review & editing 1 Chialvo Pablo Investigation Formal analysis Writing - review & editing 1 Scott Chialvo Clare Conceptualization Supervision Validation Writing - original draft 1 § Biology, Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina USA Stanga John Correspondence to: Clare Scott Chialvo ( chialvoch@appstate.edu )

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.

 4 9 2026 2026 2026 10.17912/micropub.biology.002337 12 8 2026 27 8 2026 3 9 2026 Copyright: © 2026 by the authors 2026 This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

We developed a gene model for the Wnt oncogene analog 6 ortholog ( Wnt6 ) in the ASM1890373v1 Genome Assembly (GenBank Accession: GCA_018903735.1 ) of Drosophila cardini . This ortholog was characterized as part of a developing dataset for a comparative study of detoxification gene family evolution in the immigrans - tripunctata radiation of the genus Drosophila using an adapted Genomics Education Partnership gene annotation protocol for Course-based Undergraduate Research Experiences.

Division of Biological Infrastructure (United States) https://ror.org/04qn9mx93 2217912 Clare Scott Chialvo Division of Environmental Biology (United States) https://ror.org/03g87he71 1737869 Laura K. Reed, Clare Scott Chialvo This gene annotation project was funded by Nation Science Foundation grants DEB-1737869 (PI LKR, CoPI CSC) and DBI-2217912 (PI CSC). The Genomics Education Partnership (GEP; https://thegep.org/ ), which supports this project, is funded by the National Science Foundation (1915544; PI LKR) and the National Institute of General Medical Sciences of the National Institutes of Health (R25GM130517; PI LKR). Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are solely those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official views of the National Science Foundation nor the National Institutes of Health.

(A) Synteny comparison of the genomic neighborhoods for Wnt6 in Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila cardini . Thin underlying arrows indicate which DNA strand the target gene – Wnt6 – is located on in D. melanogaster (top) and D. cardini (bottom). The thin arrows pointing to the right indicate that Wnt6 is on the positive strand in both D. melanogaster and D. cardini . The wide gene arrows pointing in the same direction as Wnt6 are on the same strand relative to the thin underlying arrows, while wide gene arrows pointing in the opposite direction of Wnt6 are on the opposite strand relative to the thin underlying arrows. White gene arrows in D. cardini indicate orthology to the corresponding gene in D. melanogaster . Gene symbols given in the D. cardini gene arrows indicate the orthologous gene in D. melanogaster , while the gene prediction identifiers are specific to D. cardini . (B) Gene Model in GEP UCSC Track Data Hub (Raney et al., 2014). The coding-regions of Wnt6 in D. cardini are displayed in the User Supplied Track (red); coding sequences (CDS) are depicted by thick rectangles and introns by thin lines with arrows indicating the direction of transcription. Subsequent evidence tracks include Spaln of D. melanogaster Proteins (purple, alignment of Ref-Seq proteins from D. melanogaster ), Coding Regions Predicted by Augustus (dark blue), GeMoMa (teal), and NSCAN PASA-EST (dark green), and RNA-Seq from mixed sex adult flies (brown; alignment of Illumina RNA-Seq reads from D. cardini – Erlenbach et al., 2023). (C) Dot Plot of Wnt6-PB in D. melanogaster ( x -axis) vs. the orthologous peptide in D. cardini ( y -axis). Amino acid number is indicated along the left and bottom; CDS number is indicated along the top and right, and CDSs are also highlighted with alternating colors. Line breaks in the dot plot indicate areas of with low sequence identity between species. We noted a short break is present in CDS 3 (dark purple box – a) and another CDS 4 (light blue box – b). (D) Idiosyncrasies in protein alignment. We identified two short breaks in the protein alignment. The first break is observed in CDS 3 (dark purple box – a). It corresponds to a region of 41 amino acids found around 160-200. The gap is due primarily to the loss of nine amino acids in the Wnt6 ortholog in D. cardini . Beyond these deletions, only seven amino acids are highly dissimilar. The second break occurs in CDS 4 (light blue box – b) and is 26 amino acids long. Of these amino acids, 18 are similar, and 4 are highly dissimilar.

Description

This article reports a predicted gene model generated by undergraduate work using a structured gene model annotation protocol defined by the Genomics Education Partnership (GEP; thegep.org) for Course-based Undergraduate Research Experience (CURE). The following information in quotes may be repeated in other articles submitted by participants using the same GEP CURE protocol for annotating Drosophila species orthologs of Drosophila melanogaster detoxification genes.

“Within insects, detoxifying xenobiotics and host secondary metabolites is a three-phase process that involves functionalization, conjugation, and excretion of these compounds. Expansions of known detoxification gene families ( e.g. , cytochrome P450s) are associated with diet breadth and insecticide resistance (Ranson et al., 2002; Després et al., 2007; Rane et al., 2016). With the increasing availability of high-quality genomes for non-model organisms, including Drosophila species beyond D. melanogaster , it is now possible to perform large scale comparative studies (Robinson et al., 2011; Kim et al., 2021; Threfall and Baxter, 2021). Careful manual annotation and curation of gene models can improve upon computational gene predictions in non-model species, which aids the accuracy of studies on gene and genome evolution (Mudge and Harrow, 2016; Tello-Ruiz et al., 2019). To aid in these annotations, the Genomics Education Partnership (thegep.org) developed a curriculum involving web-based tools that allow undergraduates to engage in authentic course-based research focused on manually annotating genes in non-model species (Rele et al., 2023). The orthologous gene models, including the one presented here, then provide a reliable basis for further evolutionary genomic analyses when made available to the scientific community. The gene ortholog described here in D. cardini for Wnt oncogene analog 6 ( Wnt6 ), a member of the Wnt gene family, was characterized as part of a developing dataset for a comparative study of detoxification gene families in the immigrans - tripunctata radiation of the genus Drosophila .” (Williams et al., 2026)

“In the subgenus Drosophila , D. cardini Sturtevant 1916 is a member of the cardini subgroup in the cardini species group of the immigrans-tripunctata radiation (Heed and Krishnamurthy, 1959; Bächli, 2005). Species in the cardini subgroup are found in the mainland Neotropics, and the range of D. cardini extends from Florida to Brazil (Heed, 1962). Members of the cardini group primarily feed and develop on fruit and flowers (Markow and O'Grady, 2008). However, D. cardini is also reported to feed on mushrooms and can tolerate the cyclopeptide toxin α-amanitin (Stump et al., 2011).” (Patel et al., 2026)

Wnt genes produce proteins classified as signaling ligands that are critical in organismal development and maintaining cellular homeostasis (Wodarz and Nusse, 1998; Logan and Nusse, 2004). Aberrant expression and mutations in these genes are associated with the development of diseases including cancer (Polakis, 2000; Logan and Nusse, 2004). Beyond their critical roles in organismal development across animals, Wnt genes also assist in the metabolism and detoxification of compounds (Zhang et al., 2017; Xue et al., 2025). Zhang et al. (2017) showed that Wnt genes played a critical role in the detoxification of the fungal toxin, epipolythiodioxopiperazine.

Wnt oncogene analog 6 ( Wnt6 ) is a member of the Wnt gene family that plays an important role in gut and wing development (Janson et al., 2001; van Amerongen and Nusse, 2009). While wounding of the larval wing imaginal disc leads to an upregulation of Wnt 6 (Floc'hlay et al., 2023; Ewen-Campen and Perrimon, 2024), infections by the pathogenic bacterium, Psuedomonas entomophila , downregulates this gene (Deshpande et al., 2022).

We propose a gene model for the D. cardini ortholog of the D. melanogaster Wnt oncogene analog 6 ( Wnt6 ) gene. The genomic region of the ortholog corresponds to the GeMoMa prediction FBtr0303251_R0 in the ASM1890373v1 genome assembly of D. cardini ( GCA_018903735.1 – Kim et al., 2021). This model is based on mixed sex, adult RNA-Seq data from D. cardini (Erlenbach et al., 2023; https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.hdr7sqvq2) and Wnt6 in D. melanogaster using FlyBase release FB2024_02 ( GCA_000001215.4 ; Öztürk-Çolak et al., 2024).

Synteny

The reference gene, Wnt6 , occurs on chromosome 2L in D. melanogaster and is flanked upstream by wingless ( wg ) and Wnt oncogene analog 4 ( Wnt4 ), which has CG31909 nested within it, and downstream by Wnt oncogene analog 10 ( Wnt10 ) and neither inactivation nor afterpotential C ( ninaC ). The tblastn search of D. melanogaster Wnt6-PB (query) against the D. cardini Genome Assembly (GenBank Accession: GCA_018903735.1 ; subject) placed the putative ortholog of Wnt6 within contig_841 ( JAEIGM010000005 .1) which corresponds to the GeMoMa prediction FBtr0303251_R0 (E-value: 0.0; percent identity: 84.76% as determined by blastp ). Within this prediction some RNA-Seq data mapped to the intronic region between exon1 and exon 2. Only Augustus generated a gene prediction that corresponds to this expression data ( JAEIGM010000005 .g115.t1). The blastp searches using this model did not recover any matches even with reduced stringency parameters. The putative ortholog is flanked upstream by the GeMoMa predictions FBtr0079432_R0 and FBtr0089291_R0, which correspond to wg and Wnt4 in D. melanogaster (E-value: 0.0 and 0.0; identity: 82.56% and 70.23%, respectively, as determined by blastp ; Figure 1A ; Altschul et al., 1990). No RNA-seq data or gene predictions suggest that a gene is nested within Wnt4 in D. cardini . The putative ortholog of Wnt6 is flanked downstream by the GeMoMa prediction FBtr0481634_R0 and the Augustus gene prediction JAEIGM010000005 .g118.t1, which correspond to Wnt10 and ninaC in D. melanogaster (E-value: 0.0 and 0.0; identity: 82.76% and 91.09%, respectively, as determined by blastp ). The putative ortholog assignment for Wnt6 in D. cardini is supported by the following evidence: The gene predictions surrounding the Wnt6 ortholog are orthologous to the genes at the same locus in D. melanogaster , gene expression data corresponds with each prediction, and local synteny is completely conserved, supported by E-values and percent identities, so we conclude that the GeMoMa prediction FBtr0303251_R0 is an ortholog of Wnt6 in D. cardini ( Figure 1A and 1B).

Protein Model

Wnt6 in D. cardini has four coding sequences (CDS) within its genomic sequence. The first and only unique protein sequence is translated from two messenger RNA isoforms that differ in their untranslated regions (Wnt6-RB and Wnt6-RC; Figure 1B ). Relative to the ortholog in D. melanogaster , the CDS number and protein isoform count are conserved . The sequence of Wnt6-PB in D. cardini has 84.8% identity (88.6% similarity) with the protein-coding isoform Wnt6-PBin D. melanogaster , as determined by blastp ( Figure 1C ). This level of divergence is not surprising given that D. cardini and D. melanogaster belong to two separate subgenera ( Drosophila and Sophophora respectively) that diverged approximately 45-60 MYA (Russo et al., 1995; Tamura et al., 2004; Obbard et al., 2012). Coordinates of this curated gene model are archived in the CaltechDATA repository (see “Extended Data” section below).

Methods

The annotation methods used in this project are adapted from those described in Rele et al. (2023), which includes algorithms, database versions, and citations for the complete annotation process developed for the Pathways Project. The methods for the current project are detailed in brief below with notes on significant differences between this protocol and the one described in Rele et al. (2023). The students use the GEP instance of the UCSC Genome Browser v.435 (https://gander.wustl.edu; Kent et al., 2002; Raney et al., 2024) to examine the genomic neighborhood of their reference detoxification gene in the D. melanogaster genome assembly (Aug. 2014; BDGP Release 6 + ISO1 MT/dm6). Students obtain the protein sequence for the D. melanogaster target gene for a given isoform and use a tblastn search of the sequence against their target Drosophila species genome assembly ( D. cardini ( GCA_018903735.1 – Kim et al., 2021)) on the NCBI BLAST server (https://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi, Altschul et al., 1990) to identify the putative ortholog location. Students compare the genomic neighborhood of the putative ortholog to that of the reference gene in D. melanogaster . This local synteny analysis includes a minimum of two upstream and two downstream genes relative to the potential ortholog. As no RefSeq protein data is available for these species, comparisons are based on gene predictions that correlate with gene expression data in the putative ortholog neighborhood. Using the multiple alignment tracks feature in the Genome Browser, students examine other sets of genomic evidence, including Spaln alignment of D. melanogaster proteins, multiple gene prediction tracks (e.g., GeMoMa, Augustus, NSCAN PASA-EST), and mixed sex RNA-Seq adult expression data from the target species generated by Erlenbach et al. (2023; https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.hdr7sqvq2). Information on the genomic structure information (e.g., CDSs, intron-exon number, number of isoforms) for the reference gene in D. melanogaster is retrieved using Gene Record Finder (https://gander.wustl.edu/~wilson/dmelgenerecord/index.html; Rele et al ., 2023). To determine approximate splice sites within the target gene, a tblastn search using the CDSs from the D. melanogaste r reference gene against the putative ortholog location (10kb up- and downstream of the target gene prediction). Coordinates of the CDS(s) are refined by examining aligned RNA-Seq data, identifying canonical splice site sequences, and ensuring the maintenance of an open reading frame. Students confirm the biological validity of their target gene model using the FlySeq Gene Model Checker (https://gander2.wustl.edu/~wilson/genechecker-flyseq/), which compares the hypothesized target gene model's structure and translated sequence against the D. melanogaster reference gene. At least two independent models for this gene are generated. These models are reconciled by the primary investigator to produce the final model presented here. Note: comparison of 5' and 3' UTR sequence information is not included in this GEP CURE protocol.

Extended Data

Description: Zip archive containing FASTA, PEP, and GFF files for wnt6 model in D. cardini. Resource Type: Model. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22002/mfrmj-nza23

We would like to thank Wilson Leung for developing and maintaining the technological infrastructure that was used to create this gene model and Laura K. Reed for overseeing the Genomics Education Partnership. Thank you to FlyBase for providing the definitive database for Drosophila melanogaster gene models.

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